Chapter Outline

Chapter Thirteen: Police Officers II: On the Job

Lecture Outline

I. Introduction: after probationary period-officer enters law enforcement career

II. Reality shock: Beginning police work
	A. Encountering citizens
		1. Attitudes toward public significantly change during first weeks and months
		2. Citizen hostility is a surprise to officers because they entered career to help people
		3. Stereotypes
			a. citizens react to uniform, badge and gun
				i. some citizens feel uncomfortable around officers
				ii. some citizens openly joke about breaking the law
			b. to ease discomfort, officers tend to socialize only with other officers, which increases isolation from the public
		4. "Dirty work"
			a. officers handle tasks no one else wants to perform
			b. they see humanity at its worst
			c. these effects accumulate over time
	B. Encountering the criminal justice system
		1. "Insiders"
			a. officers see firsthand how the system works:
				i. arrest dispositions
				ii. cases plea-bargained
				iii. how judges work
				iv. incompetence among prosecutors, attorneys, judges
			b.  become cynical about the effectiveness of the system
			c. in general, officers believe courts are too lenient
	C. Encountering the department
		1. Many officers have the most hostility toward the department
		2. "Politics" of the organization
			a. officers learn:
				i. organizations do not always act in a rational and efficient manner
				ii. some supervisors are incompetent
				iii. promotions not necessarily based on merit
				iv. personal favoritism governs some decisions
			b. many officers conclude hard work will not be rewarded
				i. best approach is to do as little as possible
				ii. avoid potentially troubling situations
			c. conflict between rank and file, and management
			d. internal conflicts

III. The seniority system
	A. New officers generally assigned to:
		1. Patrol
		2. High crime areas
		3. Evening shift
	B. Officers with more experience have first priority in requesting assignments
	C. Positive points: eliminates favoritism and discrimination
	D. Negative points:
		1. Least experienced officers get the most difficult assignment
		2. Increase in minority and female officer hiring-minorities and women highly represented in undesirable assignments

IV. Police officer attitudes and behavior
	A. Two explanations
		1. Sociological aspects
			a. special characteristics of police work
			b. nature of police organizations
			c. situational factors associated with police-citizen encounters
		2. Individual officer background characteristics
			a. social and economic status
			b. race
			c. ethnicity
			d. gender
			e. education
		3. Bulk of research supports sociological aspects
	B. The concept of a police "subculture"
		1. First identified in William Westley's study of Gary, IN police department
			a. two aspects of police subculture
				i. attitude of secrecy toward outside investigators
				ii. eagerness to help someone needing assistance
			b. subculture
				i. extremely complex phenomenon
				ii. emphasizes secrecy and violence
				iii. police officers view the public as the "enemy"
		2. Product of selective contact with the public
			a. officers usually met people who required police presence and resented the police
			b. dealt with professionals who had negative attitudes toward police
			c. faced with public hostility--officers rely on fellow officers in times of crisis
		3. Characteristics
			a. group solidarity
				i. secrecy/code of silence--justifies lying
				ii. justifies violence against citizens
		4. "Working personality" Skolnick (Oakland, CA)
			a. danger and authority
			b. officers are routinely suspicious of all people
			c. develop perceptual shorthand--associate with criminals and other potentially dangerous people, often applied to minority, young men 	 
		5. The capacity to use force
			a. further isolates officer from the public
			b. Bittner: defining feature of the police
				i. distinguishes their job from other occupations
				ii. powers are inherent in the police role
				iii. symbolized by the uniform, badge and weapon
		6. Danger: potential vs. actual
			a. shapes the police subculture
			b. important to distinguish between potential and actual danger
				i. police work is not the most dangerous occupation
				ii. mining and construction have the highest death rates
				iii. police work has become much safer in last 20 years
		7. Norms of police work conflict with constitutional standards
			a. officers are under pressure to "get results": arrests, evidence, confessions, convictions
			b. law limits police powers; designed to protect individual citizen rights
			c. officers feel pressure to evade or bend the rules
			d. Packer: tension between:
				i. crime control values
				ii. due process values
		8. Cynicism and authoritarianism (Niederhoffer)
			a. officers are cynical about both inside and outside world
			b. "police personality"--associated with authoritarianism
				i. conventional social values
				ii. cynicism
				iii. aggression
				iv. superstition
				v. tendency to stereotype
				vi. project personal values onto others
				vii. define the world in terms of good vs. bad people
	C. Criticisms of the police subculture concept: early research on police subculture has been criticized
		1. Paints a negative view of officers
		2. Portrays them as:
			a. isolated
			b. hostile to the public and to norms of a democratic society
			c. prejudiced
			d. opposed to accountability
		2. Criticisms
			a. research was mere opinion
			b. methodologically inadequate to make inferences--small samples
			c. fails to account for significant recent changes in police employment
			d. police officers may be different, but their personality traits are not pathological
			e. Bayley and Mendolsohn--study
				i. officers are average people
				ii. they are somewhat more conservative than average public
				iii. they are not authoritarian
		3. Herbert argues traditional view of police culture is too limited
			a. a number of factors are related to how officers carry out their job
				i. law
				ii. bureaucratic control
				iii. adventure/machismo
				iv. safety
				v. competence
				vi. morality 

V. The changing rank and file
	A. Original subculture concept fails to account for significant changes in the rank and file; unified concept of subculture is being replaced by one that is diverse
	B. Women police officers
		1. Introduction of women into policing 
			a. broke traditional solidarity of the workgroup
			b. traditional masculine characteristics--no longer appropriate
		2. Differences in attitudes of male officers toward female officers (Martin)
			a. "traditionals"
				i.  hold stereotyped views about women's physical strength and role in society
				ii. had the most difficulty in accepting women
			b. "moderns" accepted female officers relatively easily
			c. "moderates"
				i. accepted the idea of female officers in principle
				ii. did not like the idea of women on patrol duty
		3. Differences between attitudes of male and female officers has reduced over time
		4. Despite increase in women officers, "glass ceiling" in terms of promotion
	C. Female officers and the use of force
		1. Research
			a. slight differences between male and female officer handling of police work
			b. female officers less likely to engage in conduct unbecoming of an officer
			c. male and female officers use different verbal and nonverbal techniques to control situations; female officers rated by citizens as more pleasant and respectful
			d. female officers receive fewer complaints than male officers
		2. Some argue increasing female representation will reduce use of force
	D. African-American officers
		1. White and black officers have different attitudes about certain issues
			a. police use of force
				i. nearly half of black officers in one study believe police more likely to use force against blacks
				ii. only 4.5% of whites agreed with this statement
		2. African-American officers more likely to support innovation and change; more supportive of citizen oversight than white officers
		3. Generational differences--newer black officers more likely to criticize the department
	E. Hispanic/Latino officers
		1. Little research on Hispanic/Latino officers
		2. Research 
			a. Hispanic officers believed department discriminated against:
				i. Hispanic citizens
				ii. Hispanic officers in promotions
			b. Hispanic officers negotiate identity between:
				i. roles of police officers
				ii. members of Hispanic community
		3. Civil rights leaders have urged departments to hire more African Americans and Hispanics to improve police-community relations 
	F. Race, ethnicity and performance
		1. No strong evidence that race or ethnicity affects officer performance in handling:
			a. citizen complaints
			b. police shootings
	G. Gay and lesbian officers
		1. Some gay and lesbian officers have formed their own organizations
		2. Represent a clear challenge to the traditional stereotype of policing as tough, male occupation
		3. No studies on gay and lesbian officer performance
	H. The intersection of race, gender and sexual identity
		1. In many departments, tension and conflict between racial, ethnic and gender groups
		2. Perceived discrimination/reverse discrimination
		3. Favoritism among certain groups
		4. Divisions along racial, ethnic, and gender lines reflected in:
			a. interactions among officers
			b. groups form separate social and fraternal organizations
	I. Education
		1. Education levels of officers have been rising steadily
		2. "Generation gap" between:
			a. younger, better educated officers
			b. veteran officers with less education
		3. No strong evidence that that officers with college education behave differently than officers with less education
		4. More educated officers may receive less complaints
	J. Cohort effects
		1. Officers in one decade will differ from officers hired in later decades
		2. As new groups of officers enter policing
			a. dominant attitudes of rank and file officers change over time
			b. find circumstances an established fact of life
			(EX: Supreme Court decisions)
		3. "Two cultures" among police officers
			a. "old street cop"--values street experience, tough approach to dealing with public
			b. other group
				i. identified with new bureaucratic style--written rules and procedure with dealing with public
				ii. more accepting of Supreme Court rules on police practices
	K. Attitudes toward community policing
		1. Tradition-bound officers have negative attitudes toward community policing
		2. CAPS
			a. older and African-American officers more supportive of concept
			b. African-American officers were "ready for change"
			c. white officers were more satisfied with the status quo; most pessimistic about likely success of CAPS
		3. Twelve cities study (Lurigio and Rosenbaum): officers involved in community policing
			a. increased job satisfaction and motivation
			b. improvements in co-worker and citizen relationships
	L. Summary

VI. The relationship between attitudes and behavior
	A. Common sense dictates a one-to-one relationship; people who express prejudicial attitudes about race and gender automatically behave in a discriminatory manner
	B. Research suggests complex relationship
		1. Expressed prejudice does not translate into behavior
		2. Crime Commission Study (Black and Reiss)
			a. more prejudiced officers 
				i. only somewhat more likely to make arrests
				ii. "meager" influence
			b. less prejudiced officers
				i. more likely to treat citizens in a "neutral" manner
				ii. neither punitive nor favorably
		3. Reason attitudes do not translate into behavior: officers are constrained by department and criminal justice bureaucracy
			a. arrest is a highly visible action
			b. arrests come to the attention of other people who review officers' performance
			(EX: sergeant, prosecutor, judge)

VII. Styles of police work
	A. Two types
		1. Active officers
			a. initiate more contacts with citizens
			b. assert control of situations with citizens
			c. make more arrests
		2. Passive officers
			a. respond only to dispatched calls
			b. make few arrests
	B. Research
		1. Most police-citizen contacts are citizen-initiated
		2. Many officers make no arrests
		3. A small number of officers-"rate busters"-make most of the most arrests
		4. Style differences due to:
			a. personal temperament
			b. career expectations
		5. Career styles (Walsh)
			a. "street cops"
				i. attracted to policing by good pay, job security, etc.
				ii. most aggressive
			b. "action seekers"
				i. attracted to policing by potential for exciting work
				ii. initiate activity for immediate excitement
			c. "middle-class mobiles"
				i. attracted by professional status of policing
				ii. career advancement and upward social mobility
				iii. initiate activity for eventual reward
		6. Typology of officers based on power (Muir)
			a. "professional"
				i. has passion and perspective
				ii. grasps nature of human suffering (passion)
				iii. understands that unjust means cannot be used to deal with this problem (perspective)
			b. "enforcers"
				i. has passion but no perspective
				ii. respond to human problems 
				iii. sees no limits on their power
			c. "reciprocators"
				i. has perspective but no passion
				ii. too detached from human problems and fail to act
			d. "avoiders"
				i. has no passion or perspective
				ii. do not respond to the problems they face
				iii. take no action

VIII. Career development
	A. One of the most serious problems in American policing is lack of career opportunities
	B. Promotion
		1. Limited opportunities
			a. civil service regulations require officer serve a certain number of years "in rank" before eligibility; requirements range from 2 to 5 years
			b. opportunities occur at irregular intervals and may depend on city's financial status rather than department need	
			c. based on formal testing process
				i. involves written examination and oral interview
				ii. debate on whether tests select the most qualified persons
	C. Salaries and benefits
		1. Generally very attractive to officers
		2. Salaries are rigidly structured
			a. civil service procedures
			b. union contracts
		3. Pay is tied to an officer's rank--pay steps 
		4. Other raises result from renegotiation of entire department's pay scale
		5. Only way to receive significant pay increase is through promotion; no immediate financial rewards for outstanding performance
		6. Most departments offer additional pay for certain assignments or qualifications
			a. could include:
				i. incentive pay for college education
				ii. hazardous duty pay for certain assignments
				iii. shift differential pay
				iv. various forms of merit pay increases
		7. Overtime--assignments that involve frequent court appearances 
	D. Assignment to special units
		1. Principal award available to officers
			a. assignments generally made at chief's discretion
			b. subject to seniority rules
			c. must be within the officer's rank
		2. Play important role in promotional opportunities; number of assignments allows officer
			a. to be known to a wide range of other officers
			b. to establish a reputation for ability
			c. to learn about different aspects of the department
	E. Lateral entry
		1. Opportunity to move to other departments is limited
		2. Obstacles to officer mobility
			a. loss of seniority
			b. loss of rank
			c. pension systems cannot be transferred
		3. Very uncommon except for hiring at the rank of chief
		4. Some experts regard lateral entry as potential to enhance police professionalism
			a. would create greater opportunities for talented and ambitious officers
			b. brings in fresh blood and new ideas
		5. Opposition
			a. officers guard the few promotional opportunities available
			b. resent outsiders getting promotions

IX. Performance evaluation
	A. Traditional performance evaluations; official performance evaluations do not reflect actual performance
	B. Problems with performance evaluations
		1. Definitions are not clear--cannot explain how "effectiveness" is to be measured
		2."Halo effect"-- high rating on one factor may mean high ratings on other factors
		3. "Central tendency"-- ratings of all officers tend to cluster around one numerical level
		4. Tendency to rate everyone highly
		5. May reflect patterns of racial, ethnic or gender bias
		6. Officers may be rewarded for number of arrests rather than arrest "quality"
		7. Few if any procedures for rewarding good behavior in non-law enforcement situations
		8. Focus on punishing misconduct rather than rewarding good behavior
	C. Rampart Scandal--LAPD problems
		1. Performance evaluations were regarded worthless by department members
		2. Supervisors harassed officers for minor departmental policy violations, ignored major forms of misconduct
		3. Officers who had quit or were fired filed suits for departmental punishment while attempting to report officer misconduct
	D. NYPD study (Bayley and Garafalo)
		1. Officers asked to identify other officers who were skilled at handling conflict
		2. Officers who were rated highly by peers and had better job performance received higher ratings in official department evaluations
	E. Experts argue new approaches should be considered in light of community policing; need to take into account:
		1. New roles of the police
		2. Different tasks officers are expected to perform 

X. Job satisfaction and job stress
	A. Sources of stress
		1. Nature of police work
		2. Organizational factors
			a. perceived support from leaders
			b. relations with fellow officers
			c. career advancement opportunities
		3. Community relations
		4. Relations with media and the political establishment
		5. Personal or family factors
	B. Majority of officers are satisfied with their jobs
	C. Debate over whether policing is more stressful than other demanding occupations
		1. Research findings
		2. Higher rates of problems among officers than others in population
			a. suicide
			b. alcoholism
			c. heart attack
			d. divorce
	D. Elements that create stress
		1. Threat of danger
			a. threatening incidents are statistically infrequent
			b. on-the-job deaths (mining, farming and construction are more dangerous)
		2. Citizen disrespect 
		3. Challenges to police authority
		4. Boredom--routine patrol work involves long periods of inactivity
		5. Shifting suddenly from inactivity to a high state of readiness
		6. Dealing with extreme human suffering
		7. Police department
			a. lack of support from command officers
			b. preferential assignments given to incompetent officers due to friendships
			c. policy changes in reaction to media or politicians
			d. racial, ethnic and gender conflicts
			e. shift rotation
		8. Gender-related stress
			a. lack of acceptance by male officers
			b. lack of support
			c. sexual harassment
			d. child care responsibilities
	E. Coping with stress
		1. Until recently, departments did not assist officers with job stress
			a. problem was ignored
			b. officer assigned to an easier job
			c. troubled officers relied on support of other officers or internalized it
		2.Currently, departments maintain programs to help officers
			a. mental health professionals
			b. peer counseling
		3. Employment assistant programs (EAP)
			a. key issue is confidentiality
			b. officers need assurance that information will not be used against them in disciplinary action
			c. many refuse help due to the "macho" image	

XI. The rights of police officers
	A. Officers have same civil and constitutional rights as other citizens
		1. Subject to certain limitations 
		2. Garrity (1996):  Supreme Court ruled officers have basic constitutional rights
	B. Under First Amendment, officers have right to belong to political and religious organizations; rights can be restricted
		1. Political or religious activity on the job is not permitted
		(EX: officer may not be able to run for political office)
		2. Freedom of speech
	C. Exception: polygraph examinations
		1. Most employers cannot use lie detectors in recruitment
		2. Police agencies are exempt
	D. Officers have due process protections
		1. May not be fired or disciplined without cause
		2. Guaranteed in part by:
			a. civil service procedures
			b. union contract
	E. Officers' rights vs. accountability
		1. Most officers' rights are consistent with fairness and due process standards
			a. right to be informed of charges against him/her
			b. right to an attorney
		2. Officers should not be subject to intimidating forms of interrogation
		3. Union contracts may have provisions that impede a legitimate investigation

XII. Outside employment
	A. Many officers supplement income with outside employment, often in private security where officers wear police uniform
	B. Potential problems
		1. May diminish officer commitment to police work
		2. Conflict of interest
		(EX: working in a bar--conflict between employment and law enforcement)
		3. May lower dignity of the department

XIII. Turnover: Leaving police work
	A. Approximately 5% leave their job each year; attrition rate has been steady since the 1960s
	B. Women leave policing at a slightly higher rate than men, also more likely to resign voluntarily
		1. Hostile work environment
		2. Family responsibilities
	C. Little research on voluntary resignation
		1. Memphis study
		2. Key turning points in resignation
			a. feeling that career had stagnated
			b. intense experience brought frustration to a head
			c. lack of a sense of fulfillment on the job
			d. family considerations
			e. conduct of co-workers
			f. particular department policy(ies)
			g. new employment opportunities

XIV. Summary