| causal inference | Identification of the cause or causes of a phenomenon, by establishing covariation of cause and effect, a time-order relationship with cause preceding effect, and the elimination of plausible alternative causes.
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| control | Key component of the scientific method whereby the effect of various factors possibly responsible for a phenomenon are isolated; three basic types of control are manipulation, holding conditions constant, and balancing.
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| correlation | Exists when two measures of the same people, events, or things vary together; the presence of a correlation makes it possible to predict values on one variable by knowing the values on the second variable.
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| dependent variable | Measure of behavior used by the researcher to assess the effect (if any) of the independent variables.
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| empirical approach | Approach to acquiring knowledge that emphasizes direct observation and experimentation as a way of answering questions.
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| hypothesis | A tentative explanation for a phenomenon.
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| independent variable | Factor for which the researcher either selects or manipulates at least two levels in order to determine its effect on behavior.
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| individual differences variable | A characteristics or trait that varies consistently across individuals, such as level of depression, age, intelligence, gender. Because this variable is formed from pre-existing groups (i.e., it occurs “naturally”) an individual differences variable is sometimes called a natural groups variable. Another term sometimes used synonymously with individual differences variable is subject variable.
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| operational definition | Procedure whereby a concept is defined solely in terms of the operations used to produce and measure it.
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| reliability | A measurement is reliable when it is consistent.
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| scientific method | Approach to knowledge that emphasizes empirical rather than intuitive processes, testable hypotheses, systematic and controlled observation of operationally defined phenomena, data collection using accurate and precise instrumentation, valid and reliable measures, and objective reporting of results; scientists tend to be critical and, most importantly, skeptical.
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| theory | Logically organized set of propositions that serves to define events, describe relationships among events, and explain the occurrence of these events; scientific theories guide research and organize empirical knowledge.
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| validity | The "truthfulness" of a measure; a valid measure is one that measures what it claims to measure.
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