Preface xi Guided Tour xvi About the Authors xxiv Part One Interrelatedness 3 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Interrelationships 4 The Field of Environmental Science 5 The Interrelated Nature of Environmental Problems 5 - Environmental Close-Up: Science Versus Policy 6
An Ecosystem Approach 7 Regional Environmental Concerns 7 - Global Perspective: Fish, Seals, and Jobs 8
- Environmental Close-Up: The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 9
- Environmental Close-Up: Headwaters Forest 10
The Agricultural Middle 11 The Dry West 11 The Forested West 12 The Great Lakes and Industrial Northeast 13 The Diverse South 14
CHAPTER 2 Environmental Ethics 19 Views of Nature 20 - Environmental Close-Up: What Is Ethical? 21
Environmental Attitudes 22 - Environmental Close-Up: Naturalist Philosophers 23
- Environmental Close-Up: Environmental Philosophy 24
Societal Environmental Ethics 24 - Environmental Close-Up: A Corporate Perspective 25
Corporate Environmental Ethics 26 - Global Perspective: Chico Mendes and Extractive Reserves 28
Environmental Justice 28 Individual Environmental Ethics 29 - Global Perspective: International Trade in Endangered Species 30
Global Environmental Ethics 30 - Global Perspective: Earth Summit on Environment and Development 31
- Issues & Analysis: Antarctica--Resource or Refuge? 33
- Global Perspective: The Kyoto Protocol on Greenhouse Gases 34
CHAPTER 3 Risk and Cost: Elements of Decision Making 38 Measuring Risk 39 - Environmental Close-Up: What's in a Number? 41
Economics and the Environment 43 - Global Perspective: Wombats and the Australian Stock Exchange 47
- Environmental Close-Up: Georgia-Pacific Corporation: Recycled Urban Wood--A Case Study in Extended Product Responsibility 48
Extended Product Responsibility 48 Cost-Benefit Analysis 49 Concerns about the Use of Cost-Benefit Analysis 50 Economics and Sustainable Development 50
- Environmental Close-Up: "Green" Advertising Claims--Points to Consider 51
- Global Perspective: Pollution Prevention Pays! 54
- Environmental Close-Up: Placing a Value on Ecosystem Services 56
Economics, Environment, and Developing Nations 56
- Global Perspective: Costa Rican Forests Yield Tourists and Medicines 57
- Issues & Analysis: Shrimp, Turtles, and Turtle Excluder Devices 59
Part Two Ecological Principles and Their Application 65
CHAPTER 4 Interrelated Scientific Principles: Matter, Energy, and Environment 66 Scientific Thinking 67 - Environmental Close-Up: Typical Household Chemicals 68
Limitations of Science 69 The Structure of Matter 69 Atomic Structure 69 Molecules and Mixtures 70 Acids, Bases, and pH 70 Inorganic and Organic Matter 71 Chemical Reactions 71 Chemical Reactions in Living Things 72
Energy Principles 72 Kinds of Energy 72 States of Matter 73 First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 73 Environmental Implications of Energy Flow 74
- Issues & Analysis: Improvements in Lighting Efficiency 76
CHAPTER 5 Interactions: Environment and Organisms 80 Ecological Concepts 81 Environment 81 Limiting Factors 82 Habitat and Niche 82
The Role of Natural Selection and Evolution 84 - Environmental Close-Up: Habitat Conservation Plans: Tool or Token? 85
Natural Selection 85 Evolutionary Patterns 86
Kinds of Organism Interactions 87 Predation 87 Competition 88 Symbiotic Relationships 88 Some Relationships Are Difficult to Categorize 90
- Environmental Close-Up: Human Interaction-A Different Look 91
Community and Ecosystem Interactions 91 Major Roles of Organisms in Ecosystems 92 Keystone Species 92 Energy Flow Through Ecosystems 93 Food Chains and Food Webs 94
- Environmental Close-Up: Contaminants in the Food Chain of Fish from the Great Lakes 96
Nutrient Cycles in Ecosystems 96 Human Impact on Nutrient Cycles 100
- Issues & Analysis: Reintroducing Wolves to the Yellowstone Ecosystem 101
CHAPTER 6 Kinds of Ecosystems and Communities 105 Succession 106 Biomass: Major Types of Terrestrial Climax Communities 110 - Environmental Close-Up: Grassland Succession 114
- Global Perspective: Tropical Rainforests: A Special Case? 116
- Environmental Close-Up: Forest Canopy Studies 119
Taiga, Northern Coniferous Forest, or Boreal Forest 119 Tundra 120
Major Aquatic Ecosystems 120 - Issues & Analysis: Protecting Old-Growth Temperate Rainforests of the Pacific Northwest 127
CHAPTER 7 Population Principles 130 Population Characteristics 131 Natality and Mortality 131 Sex Ratio and Age Distribution 132 Population Density and Spatial Distribution 133 Summary of Factors That Influence Population Growth Rates 133
A Population Growth Curve 134 Carrying Capacity 135 - Environmental Close-Up: Population Growth of Invading Species 137
Reproductive Strategies and Population Fluctuations 138 Human Population Growth 138 - Global Perspective: Managing Elephant Populations--Harvest or Birth Control? 139
Social Factors Influence Human Population Growth 141 Ultimate Size Limitation 141
- Issues & Analysis: Wolves and Moose on Isle Royale 143
CHAPTER 8 Human Population Issues 146 Human Population Trends and Implications 147 - Global Perspective: Thomas Malthus and His Essay on Population 148
Factors That Influence Population Growth 148 Biological Factors 148 Social Factors 149
- Environmental Close-Up: Control of Births 150
Population Growth and Standard of Living 152 Population and Poverty--A Vicious Cycle? 153 Hunger, Food Production, and Environmental Degradation 154 The Demographic Transition Concept 156 - Global Perspective: The Urbanization of the World's Population 157
The U.S. Population Picture 157 Anticipated Changes with Continued Population Growth 158 - Global Perspective: North America--Population Comparisons 160
- Issues & Analysis: The Impact of AIDS on Populations 161
Part Three Energy 167 CHAPTER 9 Energy and Civilization: Patterns of Consumption 168 History of Energy Consumption 169 Biological Energy Sources 169 Increased Use of Wood 169 Fossil Fuels and the Industrial Revolution 170
Energy and Economics 171 Economic Growth and Energy Consumption 171 The Role of the Automobile 172
Gasoline Prices and Government Policy 172 - Global Perspective: Five Ways to Curb Traffic 173
How Energy is Used 173 Residential and Commercial Energy Use 173 Industrial Energy Use 174 Transportation Energy Use 174 The Variability of Gasoline Prices 175
Electrical Energy 175 - Environmental Close-Up: Hybrid Electric Vehicles 176
Energy Consumption Trends 177 - Global Perspective: OPEC 178
- Environmental Close-Up: Alternative-Fuel Vehicles 181
- Global Perspective: Energy Development in China 182
- Global Perspective: Potential World Petroleum Resources 183
CHAPTER 10 Energy Sources 187 Energy Sources 188 Resources and Reserves 188 Fossil-Fuel Formation 190 Issues Related to the Use of Fossil Fuels 192 Renewable Sources of Energy 197 - Global Perspective: Hydroelectric Sites 198
- Global Perspective: The Three Gorges Dam 201
Geothermal Power 201 Wind Power 202 Solar Energy 203 Biomass Conversion 205
- Global Perspective: Electricity from the Ground Up 208
Fuelwood 208 Solid Waste 209
Energy Conservation 210
Issues & Analysis: The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and Oil 212CHAPTER 11 Nuclear Energy: Benefits and Risks 215 The Nature of Nuclear Energy 216 The History of Nuclear Energy Development 217 Nuclear Reactors 217 Breeder Reactors 221 Nuclear Fusion 222 The Nuclear Fuel Cycle 223 Nuclear Material and Weapons Production 223 Nuclear Power Concerns 224 Reactor Safety: The Effects of Three Mile Island and Chernobyl 225 Exposure to Radiation 227 Thermal Pollution 228 Decommissioning Costs 229 Radioactive Waste Disposal 230
Global Perspective: The Nuclear Legacy of the Soviet Union 231Part Four Human Influences on Ecosystems 237 CHAPTER 12 Human Impact on Resources and Ecosystems 238 The Changing Role of Human Impact 239 Historical Basis of Pollution 239 Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources 240 Costs Associated with Resource Utilization 241 Mineral Resources 241 Steps in Mineral Utilization 242 Recycling of Mineral Materials 243
Utilization and Modification of Terrestrial Ecosystems 243 Managing Forest Ecosystems 244 Economic and Energy Costs of Utilizing Forest Ecosystems 244 Environmental Costs of Utilizing Forest Ecosystems 244 Environmental Implications of Various Harvesting Methods 245 Plantation Forestry 246 Special Concerns about Tropical Deforestation 246
- Environmental Close-Up: The Northern Spotted Owl 247
Managing Rangeland Ecosystems 247 Areas with Minimal Human Impact-Wilderness and Remote Areas 249 - Global Perspective: The History of the Bison 252
Managing Aquatic Ecosystems 250 Environmental Costs Associated with Utilizing Marine Ecosystems 250 Environmental Costs Associated with Utilizing Freshwater Ecosystems 253 Aquaculture 255
• Environmental Close-Up: Farming, Fish Kills, and Pfiesteria piscicida 255 - Environmental Close-Up: Native American Fishing Rights 257
Managing Ecosystems for Wildlife 255 Habitat Analysis and Management 255 Population Assessment and Management 256 Predator and Competitor Control 258 Special Issues with Migratory Waterfowl Management 259
Extinction and Loss of Biodiversity 260 Human-Accelerated Extinction 260 Why Worry about Extinction? 261
What Is Being Done to Prevent Extinction and Protect Biodiversity? 262 - Environmental Close-Up: The California Condor 263
- Issues & Analysis: Fire As a Forest Management Tool 266
CHAPTER 13 Land-Use Planning 269 The Need for Planning 270 Historical Forces That Shaped Land Use in North America 270 The Importance of Waterways 270 The Rural-to-Urban Shift 270
- Global Perspective: Urbanization in the Developing World 272
Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs 272 Factors That Contribute to Sprawl 273 Problems Associated with Unplanned Urban Growth 275 Transportation Problems 275 Air Pollution 275 Low Energy Efficiency 275 Loss of Sense of Community 275 Death of the Central City 275 Higher Infrastructure Costs 276 Loss of Open Space 276 Loss of Farmland 276 Water Pollution Problems 277 Floodplain Problems 277 Wetlands Misuse 277
- Environmental Close-Up: Wetlands Loss in Louisiana 278
Land-Use Planning Principles 279 Mechanisms for Implementing Land-Use Plans 280 Establishing State or Regional Planning Agencies 280 Purchasing Land or Use Rights 281 Regulating Use 281
- Environmental Close-Up: Land-Use Planning and Aesthetic Pollution 282
Special Urban Planning Issues 282 Urban Transportation Planning 283 Urban Recreational Planning 283 Redevelopment of Inner-City Areas 285
Federal Government Land-Use Issues 285 - Issues & Analysis: Decision Making in Land-Use Planning: The Malling of America 287
CHAPTER 14 Soil and Its Uses 291 Geologic Processes 292 Soil and Land 294 Soil Formation 294 Soil Properties 296 Soil Profile 297 Soil Erosion 299 Soil Conservation Practices 301 Contour Farming 303 Strip Farming 304 Terracing 304 Waterways 304 Windbreaks 304
Conventions Versus Conservation Tillage 305 Protecting Soil on Nonfarm Land 307 - Global Perspective: Worldwide Soil Degradation 308
- Environmental Close-Up: Land Capability Classes 310
- Issues & Analysis: Soil Erosion in Virginia 312
CHAPTER 15 Agricultural Methods and Pest Management 315 Different Approaches to Agriculture 316 Fossil Fuel Versus Muscle Power 318 The Impact of Fertilizer 318 Agricultural Chemical Use 319 - Environmental Close-Up: Regulation of Pesticides 321
- Environmental Close-Up: A New Generation of Insecticides 323
Fungicides and Rodenticides 323 Other Agricultural Chemicals 324
Problems with Pesticide Use 324 - Environmental Close-Up: Politics and the Control of Ethylene Dibromide (EDB) 325
Pesticide Resistance 325 Effects on Nontarget Organisms 327 Human Health Concerns 327
- Global Perspective: China's Ravenous Appetite 328
- Global Perspective: Contaminated Soils in the Former Soviet Union 329
Why Are Pesticides So Widely Used? 329 Alternatives to Conventional Agriculture 329 - Environmental Close-Up: Food Additives 331
- Issues & Analysis: Herring Gulls As Indicators of Contamination in the Great Lakes 335
CHAPTER 16 Water Management 339 The Water Issue 340 The Hydrologic Cycle 341 Human Influences on the Hydrologic Cycle 342 Kinds of Water Use 343 Domestic Use of Water 343 Agricultural Use of Water 344 Industrial Use of Water 346 In-Stream Use of Water 347
- Environmental Close-Up: Is It Safe to Drink the Water? 351
Kinds and Sources of Water Pollution 349 Municipal Water Pollution 351 Agricultural Water Pollution 352 Industrial Water Pollution 353 Thermal Pollution 353 - Global Perspective: The Cleanup of the Holy Ganges 352
- Global Perspective: Comparing Water Use and Pollution in Industrialized and
Developing Countries 354 Water-Use Planning Issues 356 Water Diversion 357 Wastewater Treatment 358
- Environmental Close-Up: Restoring the Everglades 360
- Global Perspective: Death of a Sea 363
- Global Perspective: ECOPARQUE 366
- Issues & Analysis: The California Water Plan 367
Part Five Pollution and Policy 371 CHAPTER 17 Air Quality Issues 372 The Atmosphere 373 Primary Air Pollutants 374 Carbon Monoxide (CO) 375 Hydrocarbons (HC) 375
- Global Perspective: Air Pollution in Mexico City 376
Particulates 376 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2 ) 376 Oxides of Nitrogen (N and NO2 ) 377
Photochemical Smog 377 Other Significant Air Pollutants 378 Control of Air Pollution 379 Acid Deposition 381 - Environmental Close-Up: Secondhand Smoke 384
Global Warming and Climate Change 385 Worsening Health Effects 389 Rising Sea Level 390 Disruption of the Water Cycle 390 Changing Forests and Natural Areas 391 Challenges to Agriculture and Food Supply 391
Addressing Climate Change 392 Ozone Depletion 393 - Environmental Close-Up: Radon 394
Indoor Air Pollution 396 - Environmental Close-Up: Noise Pollution 397
- Issues & Analysis: International Air Pollution 398
CHAPTER 18 Solid Waste Management and Disposal 401 Introduction 402 The Disposable Decades 402 The Nature of the Problem 402 Methods of Waste Disposal 404 - Environmental Close-Up: Resins Used in Consumer Packaging 406
Incineration 407 Composting 408 Source Reduction 409 Recycling 411
- Environmental Close-Up: What You Can Do to Reduce Waste and Save Money 413
- Environmental Close-Up: Recycling Is Big Business 413
- Environmental Close-Up: Recyclables Market Basket 415
- Issues & Analysis: Corporate Response to Environmental Concerns 416
CHAPTER 19 Regulating Hazardous Materials 419 Hazardous and Toxic Materials in Our Environment 420 Hazardous and Toxic Substances--Some Definitions 420 Defining Hazardous Waste 421 Issues Involved in Setting Regulations 421 - Environmental Close-Up: Exposure to Toxins 423
Setting Exposure Limits 423 Acute and Chronic Toxicity 423 Synergism 423 Persistent and Nonpersistent Pollutants 424
Environmental Problems Caused by Hazardous Wastes 424 Health Risks Associated with Hazardous Wastes 425 Hazardous-Waste Dumps--A Legacy of Abuse 426 - Global Perspective: Lead and Mercury Poisoning 427
- Environmental Close-Up: Computers--A Hazardous Waste 429
Managing Hazardous Wastes 429 Pollution Prevention 430 Waste Minimization 430 Recycling of Waste 431 Treatment of Waste 431 Land Disposal 431
Hazardous-Waste Management Choices 432 - Global Perspective: Hazardous Wastes and Toxic Materials in China 433
- Issues & Analysis: Love Canal 435
CHAPTER 20 Environmental Policy and Decision Making 438 New Challenges for a New Century 439 Learning from the Past 440 Thinking about the Future 441 Defining the Future 442 The Development of Environmental Policy in the United States 442 Environmental Backlash--The Wise Use Movement 444 The Changing Nature of Environmental Policy 445
Environmental Policy and Regulation 446 The Greening of Geopolitics 447 - Environmental Close-Up: Changing the Nature of Environmental Regulation-The Safe Drinking Water Act 449
- Global Perspective: Eco-Terrorism 451
International Environmental Policy 451 - Global Perspective: Environmental Policy and the European Union 452
- Global Perspective: Overview of an International Organization-The International Whaling Commission (IWC) 453
- Global Perspective: Eco-Labels 454
It All Comes Back to You 455
Appendix 1: Critical Thinking 459 Appendix 2: Metric Unit Conversion Tables 460 Appendix 3: The Periodic Table of the Elements 462 Appendix 4: What You Can Do to Make the World a Better Place In Which to Live 463 Appendix 5: How to Write to Your Elected Officials 464 Glossary 465 Credits 473 Index 476 | 
2002 McGraw-Hill Higher Education