| ABC method | Prioritization method used to rank job tasks in terms of their importance and urgency.
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| Abilene Paradox | This is a paradox through which a particular situation forces a group of people to act in a way that is counter to their actual preferences. It is a phenomenon that occurs when groups continue with misguided activities which no group member desires because no member is willing to raise objections.
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| Ability | A capacity to successfully perform job tasks.
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| Absolute subjective assessment | Involves comparing an employee's performance to that of a model or set performance standard.
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| Accommodation | Conflict style in which individuals neglect their own concerns to satisfy the concerns of others.
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| Active listening | Communication technique in which an individual confirms his/her understanding of content and feelings of the person speaking.
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| Activity based goals | Describes solely the activities by which success will be determined.
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| Adverse impact | Legal term referring to normally unintentional discrimination caused by the use of certain types of selection tests.
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| After action review | Technique used to learn from a group's successes and failures by thoroughly reviewing the process and outcomes of an exercise or project.
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| Analogies | A well-tested technique for improving creative problem solving by helping make the strange familiar or the familiar strange.
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| Anchoring and adjustment bias | Tendency to use a number or value as a starting point and then adjust future judgments based upon the initial value.
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| Appreciative inquiry | An approach that seeks to identify the unique qualities and special strengths of an organization.
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| Articulating a vision | Behavior that allows the leader to identify new opportunities for his or her group and talk positively about what that means for them.
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| Assertive communication | Clearly and respectfully expressing one's needs to others.
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| Assessment center | Method for assessing and developing managerial capabilities consisting of a series of behavioral exercises.
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| Authority | The rights inherent in a managerial position.
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| Availability bias | The tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available or easy to bring to mind.
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| Avoidance | Conflict style in which individuals circumvent their own concerns or those of the other person.
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| Balanced scorecard | A method for tracking business results across a number of critical areas including financial, customer, internal process, and employee factors.
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| BATNA | The BATNA, or Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement, is what alternative a person will be left with if they cannot reach a negotiated agreement with another party.
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| Behavioral intentions | The motivation and thoughts that are immediate precursors of a person's actual behavior.
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| Behavioral interviews | Interview technique that requires candidates to recount actual instances from their past work or relevant experiences relative to the job at hand.
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| Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) | Performance evaluation technique that compares job behaviors with specific performance statements on a scale from poor to outstanding.
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| Benchmarking | Technique used to compare one organization's practices with another, usually successful organization's practices.
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| Big Five | The five basic dimensions of personality which include extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience.
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| Black or white fallacy | The tendency to assume that a solution to a problem is limited to two distinct possibilities.
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| Bounded rationality | Limiting decision making to simplified solutions that do not represent the full complexity of the problem.
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| Brainwriting | Technique used to generate solutions to a problem which allows participants time to generate ideas on their own, record them and then share with the group.
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| Career orientation | A preference for a specific type of occupation and work context.
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| Change agent | An individual who possesses knowledge and power to guide and facilitate an organizational change effort.
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| Choking | Slang term used to describe the phenomenon that the presence of others often hinders individual performance.
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| Coercive power | Power base that draws upon an individual's ability to control the distribution of undesirable outcomes.
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| Cognitive ability | The capacity to learn and process cognitive information such as reading comprehension, mathematical patterns, and spatial patterns.
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| Collaboration | Conflict style in which individuals work to find an alternative that meets all parties concerns.
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| Communicating high performance expectations | Behavior that demonstrates the leader's expectations for excellence, quality, and high performance on the part of followers.
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| Competition | Conflict style in which individuals pursue their own concerns relatively aggressively, often at the expense of other people's concerns.
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| Competitive team rewards | Situation in which a team is rewarded based upon each individual's contribution and each member's reward varies according to his individual performance.
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| Compromise | Conflict style in which individuals pursue a mutually acceptable solution that partially satisfies everyone involved.
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| Confirmation bias | Tendency to seek information that verifies past or current beliefs while ignoring information that contradicts past or current beliefs.
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| Conflict | The process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party.
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| Conformity | Loyal adherence by individuals or group members to group or societal norms.
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| Consultative coaching | Helping an employee develop or solve problems by exploring alternatives and challenging the employee's thinking through asking questions.
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| Contingent punishment behavior | Leader behavior that administers a negative outcome to a subordinate based upon the performance of the subordinate.
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| Contingent reward behavior | Leader behavior that provides a positive outcome to a subordinate based upon the performance of the subordinate.
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| Contracting | A process in which a change agent establishes a relationship with key stakeholders and agrees to the process for change.
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| Convergent thinking | Group problem-solving which is oriented toward deriving the single best answer to a clearly defined question.
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| Cooperative team rewards | Situation in which a team is rewarded as a group for its successful performance, and each member receives exactly the same reward.
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| Core job dimensions | The key characteristics of any job: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.
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| Daily hassles | Frequent minor annoyances or events that contribute to an individual's overall stress level.
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| Daily uplifts | Frequent unexpected positive events which can reduce an individual's overall stress level.
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| Deductive argument | Based on a structure which moves from the general assertion to the specific evidence supporting the assertion.
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| Deep-level diversity | Differences among people reflected in underlying attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, skills, and values.
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| Dependence | The power attributed to one individual in a relationship when he/she possess something that another individual desires.
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| Devil's advocate | A person who advocates an opposing or unpopular cause for the sake of argument or to expose it to a thorough examination.
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| Diffusion of responsibility | A condition whereby members feel their personal responsibility is limited because others will step up and act.
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| Directive behavior | Leaders define the roles and tasks of the followers and supervise them closely.
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| Disparate treatment | Legal term referring to intentional discrimination caused by the selection preferences or practices of a manager or organization.
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| Divergent thinking | Involves producing multiple or alternative answers from available information. It requires making unexpected combinations, recognizing links among remotely associated issues, and transforming information into unexpected forms.
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| Downsizing | Terminating large numbers of employees to recapture losses or gain some form of competitive advantage.
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| 80/20 rule | This rule states that for many phenomena, 80% of the consequences stem from 20% of the causes.
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| Emoticons | An evolving set of symbols for expressing emotions in e-mail communications.
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| Emotional intelligence | The ability to accurately detect and manage emotional information in oneself and others.
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| Equality rule | Process by which resources and rewards are distributed so that each employee gets the same outcome regardless of contributions.
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| Equifinality | A condition in which different initial conditions lead to similar effects.
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| Equity rule | Process by which resources and rewards are distributed to employees with respect to their abilities or contributions.
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| Equity sensitivity | Those high in equity sensitivity are more outcome-oriented and want more than others for the same level of inputs. Those low in equity sensitivity pay more attention to their inputs and are less sensitive to equity issues.
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| Equity theory | Refers to an individual's perceptions of the fairness of outcomes he/she receives on the job.
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| Escalation of commitment | The phenomenon where people increase their investment in a decision despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong. Such investment may include money (known informally as "throwing good money after bad"), time, or other resources.
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| Ethical commitment | Level of dedication or desire to do what is right even in the face of potentially harmful personal repercussions.
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| Ethical competency | Skillful consideration of ethics in each stage of the problem-solving process.
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| Ethical consciousness | The ability to understand the ramifications of choosing less ethical courses of action.
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| Ethos | Greek term used to describe the acceptance of a communicator's arguments on the basis of the communicator's perceived competence, ethical or professional character.
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| Eustress | Positive, desirable form of stress.
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| Expectancy | The understanding of what performance is desired and the belief that effort will lead to a desired level of performance.
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| Expectancy theory | The level of an individual's motivation depends on the strength of his/her expectation that work behavior will be valued by others and followed by an outcome that is attractive to the individual.
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| Expert coaching | Helping an employee develop or solve problems by dispensing advice, instructing or prescribing recommendations.
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| Expert power | Power base that draws upon an individual's special skills or knowledge.
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| Extinction | The gradual disappearance of a behavior that occurs after the termination of any reinforcement of such behavior.
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| Extraversion | A personality dimension that characterizes people who tend to be outgoing, talkative, sociable, and assertive.
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| Extrinsic outcomes | Outcomes obtained from sources external to the individual including pay and benefits.
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| Filter | Selectively listening to some content from a communicator and not to others.
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| Five bases of power | Major forms of both formal and personal power that managers possess to a greater or lesser extent; reward, legitimate, referent, expert, and coercive power.
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| Five S's | A simple, five-step process that can guide an individual preparing a persuasive presentation. The five S's are: strategy, structure, support, style, and supplement.
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| Force field analysis | Lewin's model of system-wide change that helps change agents diagnose the forces that drive and restrain proposed organizational change.
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| Forming stage | In this stage of group development, a primary concern is the initial entry of members into a group. Individuals ask questions as they begin to identify with other group members and with the group itself.
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| Fostering the acceptance of group goals | Behavior on the part of the leader aimed at promoting cooperation among employees and getting them to work together toward a common goal.
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| Four frames model | An approach to change suggesting that four frames exist in organizations of every kind: structural, human resource, political, and symbolic. The four frames can be respectively likened to factories, families, jungles, and theaters or temples.
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| Full range of leadership | An approach to leadership using transactional leader behaviors to establish a good relationship and then utilizing transformational leader behaviors to get "performance beyond expectations."
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| Fundamental attribution error | The tendency of a decision maker to underestimate or largely ignore external factors and overestimate internal factors.
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| Gap analysis | Tool used to evaluate the relationship between an organization's current practices and its desired future practices.
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| Graphic rating scale | Performance evaluation technique in which managers rate a particular employee behavior on a predetermined graduated scale.
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| Groupthink | A pattern of faulty decision making that occurs in groups where members seek agreement at the expense of decision quality.
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| Growth need strength | The need to want to grow or develop in one's job.
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| Hasty generalization fallacy | Tendency to draw an inappropriate general conclusion from a single specific case.
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| Hearing | The physical reality of receiving sounds; it is a passive act that happens even when we are asleep.
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| Histogram | A graphic bar-chart display of data (on the X axis) tracked against some important standard (on the Y axis).
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| Hypotheticals | A theoretical suggestion or comment that lets you explore creative possibilities with less pressure and helps both parties think through issues they may have not previously considered.
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| Identifiability | A strategy for reducing social loafing by making member contribution to a task explicit.
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| Inductive argument | Based on a structure which moves from specific evidence to a general assertion supported by the evidence.
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| Influence tactic | Behavior that attempts to alter another individual's attitude or behavior.
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| Information richness | The potential information carrying capacity of a communication channel, and the extent to which it facilitates developing a common understanding between people.
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| Innocent bystander effect | When a person sees others are present, they will be more likely not to get involved, assuming that others will take care of the problem. This is the effect caused by a diffusion of responsibility.
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| Inquiry skills | Skills used to surface others' assumptions by asking questions about a problem.
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| Instrumentality | An individual's subjective belief about the likelihood that performing a behavior will result in a particular outcome.
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| Intrinsic outcomes | Outcomes that stem from sources internal to the individual including a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction.
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| Introversion | A personality dimension that characterizes people who tend to be quiet and solitary.
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| Intuition | A sense of something not evident or deducible; an impression or gut feeling.
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| Jargon | Technical language and acronyms as well as recognized words with specialized meaning in specific organizations or groups.
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| Job analysis | The process of collecting information about the tasks, knowledge, skills, and abilities required for a job.
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| Job Characteristics Model (JCM) | Description of the potential motivation level inherent in various jobs.
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| Kotter's eight stages of change | An eight-step framework that is a useful way to think about the critical elements necessary to create successful change interventions. (Increase urgency, create a guiding coalition, get the vision right, communicate for buy-in, empower action, create short-term wins, consolidate gains and don't let up, anchor change in your culture.)
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| Ladder of inference | A common mental pathway in which people observe events or information and ultimately form misguided beliefs based upon their perception of the events or information.
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| Leader-member exchange | Refers to the quality of the relationship between a manager and his or her subordinate.
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| Leadership | The ability to influence people to set aside their personal concerns and support a larger agenda.
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| Legitimate power | Power base that relies on a position in the formal hierarchy of an organization.
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| Listening | An active process that means a conscious effort to hear and understand. To listen we must not only hear but also pay attention, understand, and assimilate.
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| Logos | Greek term for logical arguments presented by a speaker including facts, figures, and other forms of persuasion.
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| Maslow's hierarchy of needs | Depiction of five basic needs that motivate behavior arranged in a hierarchy from lower order (physiological) to highest order (self-actualization).
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| MECE | This is an abbreviation for mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. The MECE approach says that data should be divided in groups which do not overlap and which cover all the data. This is desirable for the purpose of analysis, because it avoids both the problem of double counting and the risk of overlooking information.
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| Mental models | The broad worldviews that people rely on to guide their perceptions and behaviors.
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| Mentor | A more experienced person who provides assistance and guidance as part of a long-term relationship.
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| Mentoring | An intense, long-term relationship between a more experienced individual (mentor) and a less experienced individual (protégé).
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| Mixed-motive situation | Situations in which an individual is motivated to both compete and cooperate.
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| Model of transitions | A change model that depicts individuals experiencing three stages of transition while undergoing change; endings, neutral zones, and beginnings.
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| Modeling | Learning by imitating the behavior of others.
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| Moral imagination | Ability to cognitively remove oneself from a problem and see the possible ethical problems present, imagine other possibilities and alternatives, and evaluate new possibilities.
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| Moral intensity | The degree to which an issue demands the application of ethical principles.
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| Motivating force | In expectancy theory, the total drive toward action that a person experiences. Consists of the multiplicative product of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Generally represented by the formula MF = E × I × V.
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| Motivation | Psychological factors that determine the direction of an individual's behavior, effort and persistence.
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| Motivation potential score (MPS) | Predictive index suggesting the motivating potential in a job, derived from the Job Characteristics Model.
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| Multi-source feedback | Feedback provided by many sources other than one's self, such as from a boss, co-worker, customer, or subordinate.
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| Need for achievement | Degree to which an individual has a desire to achieve in relation to a set of standards and strive to succeed.
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| Need for affiliation | Degree to which an individual has a desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
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| Need for power | Degree to which an individual has a desire to influence or control other people.
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| Need rule | Process by which resources and rewards are distributed to an employee or employees who need them most.
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| Negative reinforcement | Eliminating an undesirable outcome when an individual performs a desired behavior.
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| Norming stage | The point at which the group begins to come together as a coordinated unit.
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| Norms | The informal rules and expectations that groups establish to regulate the behavior of their members.
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| Objective assessment | Evaluation technique based on results or impartial performance outcomes that are easily identifiable, representing employee output that is visible and/or countable.
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| Occupational fit | The degree to which a match exists between an individuals' career preferences and their current job and organization.
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| Operant conditioning | The process of learning that links desired consequences to desired behaviors.
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| Organizational behavior modification | An application of reinforcement theory to increasing an individual's motivation and performance.
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| Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) | Discretionary behaviors (not required to perform one's job) beneficial to the organization but that are not explicitly recognized by the formal reward system.
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| Organizational cynicism | A feeling of distrust toward an organization. Usually associated with prior misdeeds by the organization whereby the trust of the employees has been undermined.
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| Organizational development (OD) | A system-wide strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of organizations so that they can better adapt to new technologies, markets, and challenges.
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| Outcome-based goals | Describes the specific results by which success will be determined.
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| Overconfidence bias | Tendency to be overly optimistic or confident in one's decisions.
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| PADIL | Acronym to describe the five key steps in the problem solving process: problem, alternatives, decide, implement, and learn.
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| Pareto efficient | Represents an outcome in which no other possible agreement results in both parties being better off.
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| Pathos | Greek term for appeals that rely on emotion to persuade.
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| Performance management cycle (PMC) | The key steps involved in managing employee performance; selecting, assessing, and managing performance.
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| Performance tests | Employment tests designed specifically to measure hands-on skills that are highly predictive of future job performance.
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| Performing stage | The emergence of a mature, organized, and well-functioning team.
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| Personality | Represents the pattern of relatively enduring ways in which a person thinks, acts, and behaves.
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| Platinum rule | Variant of the golden rule, treat others how they wish to be treated.
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| Positive reinforcement | Providing a desirable outcome for an individual who performs a desired behavior.
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| Positive self-talk | A self-management tool intended to create a frame of mind that energizes your self-confidence and gets you beyond self-defeating and negative feelings that can accompany learning difficult tasks.
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| Power | The capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others.
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| Power bases | The sources of power for an individual.
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| Power distance | The worldview that values economic and social differences in wealth, status, and well-being as natural and normal.
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| Preferences | Choices we make, mostly unconsciously, to navigate the world.
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| Professionalism | A level of behavior that is consistent with the current standards and practices of individuals in organizations.
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| Protégé | A junior, less experienced person in an organization that forms a relationship with a mentor.
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| Providing an appropriate model | Behavior on the part of the leader that sets an example for employees to follow that is consistent with the values the leader or the organization espouses.
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| Providing individualized support | Behavior that indicates the leader respects followers and is concerned about their personal feelings and needs.
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| Providing intellectual stimulation | Behavior on the part of the leader that challenges followers to re-examine assumptions about their work and rethink how it can be performed.
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| Prudence | The practical wisdom to make the right choice at the right time.
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| Psychological hardiness | The ability to remain psychologically stable and healthy in the face of significant stress.
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| Psychological reactance | Phenomenon that when a person's choice is limited or threatened, the need to retain freedom makes the person want that option more than if the choice had not been limited or threatened in the first place.
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| Psychological states | The personal states experienced by an individual that are employed in the job characteristics model.
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| Punishment | Providing an undesirable outcome for an individual who performs a desired behavior.
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| Pygmalion effect | Based on the premise that we form expectations of others, then we communicate those expectations through our behavior, and as a result people tend to respond to our behavior by adjusting their behavior to match our expectations. This is also called a self-fulfilling prophesy.
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| Ranking technique | Relative performance evaluation method whereby a manager lists all employees from best to worst.
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| Realistic job preview (RJP) | Presentation to applicant regarding both the positive and negative aspects of a job.
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| Reciprocal determinism | In Bandura's Social Learning theory any new behavior is the result of three main factors—the person, the environment, and the behavior—and they all influence each other.
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| Referent power | Power base that relies on the possession by an individual of desirable resources or personal traits.
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| Reframing | To explore organizational issues through multiple lenses or frames and to use those frames to uncover new opportunities and options in confusing or ambiguous situations.
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| Reinforcement theory | Set of principles based on the notion that behavior is a function of its consequences.
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| Relationship conflict | Conflict that arises from incompatible or strained personal interactions.
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| Relative subjective assessment | Performance evaluation technique that compares an employee's performance against that of another employee's performance.
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| Representative bias | Tendency to classify something or someone according to how similar it is to a typical case or to previous situations in the past.
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| Reversing the problem | In problem solving, this refers to the process of turning a problem around to try to come up with creative solutions. An example would be rather than looking at why some people are getting ill, look at why most people are staying healthy.
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| Reward power | Power base that relies on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable.
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| Ringelmann effect | Describes the situation in which some people do not work as hard in groups as they do individually.
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| Risky shift | Phenomenon that groups tend to make riskier decisions than the average of each group member's risk propensity would suggest.
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| Satisficing | Settling for the first alternative that meets some minimum level of acceptability.
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| Self-management | The ability to manage one's own, behavior, cognitions, emotions, and impulses.
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| Self-observation | The ability to determine when, why, and under what conditions an individual should engage in certain behaviors.
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| Self-serving bias | Tendency of an individual to attribute favorable outcomes to his/her internal factors and failures to his/her external factors.
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| Situational interview | Interview technique that requires candidates indicate how they would respond to various hypothetical job scenarios.
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| Situational leadership | An approach to leadership suggesting that the appropriate leader behavior depends upon the development level of the employees.
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| Small wins | Small but meaningful milestones in order to build self-confidence in completing a large task.
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| SMART goals | Acronym representing key characteristics of effective goals. SMART represents specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound.
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| Social conformity | Involves social pressures to conform to the perceived wishes of the group.
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| Social contracting | A strategy for trying to actively reduce loafing by addressing the issue before it happens. Before a goal gets set, a task assigned, or work divided, the team might discuss and agree upon the consequences for members who do not pull their own weight.
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| Social influence | The ability to influence others without formal authority.
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| Social influence weapons | Set of influence tactics described by Cialdini which include friendship/liking, commitment and consistency, scarcity, reciprocity, social proof, and appeals to authority.
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| Social learning theory | Perspective that people learn the best through direct observation and experience.
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| Social loafing | A situation in which people exert less effort when working in groups than when working alone.
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| Social network | An extended group of people with similar concerns who rely on each other for advice and support and share resources that benefit those involved.
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| Stakeholder | Shareholders, customers, suppliers, governments, and any other groups with a vested interest in the organization or problem.
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| Storming stage | This is a period of high emotion and tension among the members while the group is still in its relatively early stages of development. Hostility and infighting between members may occur, and the group typically experiences some changes.
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| Stress | An individual's response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person's well-being.
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| Strong ties | Direct personal connections between people.
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| Structured interview | Interview technique in which interviewers ask the same set of predetermined questions to all job applicants.
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| Subdivision | The process of breaking things, such as problems, products, or services, into their smallest component parts or attributes.
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| Subjective assessment | Performance evaluation methods that involve human judgments of performance.
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| Suboptimization | The pursuit of goals that ignore other important objectives (not formally covered by goals) and may do things outside the spirit of the goals, even unethical behavior, to achieve the goals.
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| Superordinate goal | A common objective that transcends individuals needs and can serve as a unifying purpose.
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| Supportive behavior | Leaders pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to the follower and provide encouragement to complete the task.
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| Surface-level diversity | Differences among people reflected in easily seen physical characteristics, including gender, age, race, and national origin/ethnicity.
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| Swiss Cheese Method | Refers to poking small holes in important projects. In this way, work is being accomplished toward the larger objective and progress is being made.
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| System | A perceived whole whose elements hang together because they continually affect each other over time and operate toward a common purpose.
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| Systemic structure | A pattern of interrelationships among the system components that sustains behavior.
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| Task conflict | Conflict that arises from disagreements of ideas or project content.
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| Team | A group of two or more people who have a high degree of interaction and interdependence and are mutually accountable for achieving common objectives.
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| Topgrading | Also known as forced distribution and requires the manager to assess employees based on predetermined evaluation categories and to force employees into these categories to form a desired distribution.
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| Transactional leadership | Leadership behaviors based on exchange that motivate followers to achieve by rewarding them for good performance and reprimanding them for poor performance.
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| Transformational leadership | Leadership behaviors based on appealing to higher level needs that motivate followers to achieve beyond expectations by inspiring them to transcend personal interests.
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| Unfreeze - change - refreeze model | Unfreezing is the first part of the change process whereby the change agent produces disequilibrium between the driving and restraining forces. Change refers to when the change intervention is started and ongoing. Refreezing is the latter part of the change process in which systems and conditions are introduced that reinforce and maintain the desired behaviors.
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| Unstructured interview | Interview technique in which the interviewer and applicant have an unscripted conversation.
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| Valence | The value a individual places on received outcomes.
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| Value system | An individual's values arranged in a hierarchy of preferences.
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| Weak ties | Indirect personal connection between people. An example would be a "friend of a friend."
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| Win-lose negotiation | Negotiation approach in which an individual seeks to win the negotiation thereby causing the other party to lose.
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| Win-win negotiation | Negotiation approach in which an individual works to seek a mutually acceptable solution to the conflict.
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| Work sample | Employment test whereby an applicant performs an actual component of the job for which he/she has applied.
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| Zero-sum game | Describes a situation in which a person's gain or loss is exactly balanced by the losses or gains of the other people. It is so named because when the total gains of the people are added up, and the total losses are subtracted, they will sum to zero.
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