| age cohort | People born within the same generation.
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| behaviorism | A learning perspective that holds that theories of psychology must be based on observations of behavior rather than on speculations about motives or unobservable factors.
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| case study method | A form of research in which investigators study an individual person or group very intensely.
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| child development | A field of study that seeks to account for the gradual evolution of the child's cognitive, social, and other capacities first by describing changes in the child's observed behaviors and then by uncovering the processes and strategies that underlie these changes.
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| chronosystem | The time-based dimension that can alter the operation of all other systems in Bronfenbrenner's model, from microsystem through macrosystem.
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| classical conditioning | A type of learning in which two stimuli are repeatedly presented together until individuals learn to respond to the unfamiliar stimulus in the same way they respond to the familiar stimulus.
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| cognitive social learning theory | A learning theory that stresses the importance of observation and imitation in the acquisition of new behaviors, with learning mediated by cognitive processes.
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| control group | In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment, or the independent variable.
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| correlational method | A research design that permits investigators to establish relations among variables as well as assess the strength of those relations.
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| cross-sectional method | A research method in which researchers compare groups of individuals of different age levels at approximately the same point in time.
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| dependent variable | The variable, or factor, that researchers expect to change as a function of change in the independent variable.
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| direct observation | A method of observation in which researchers go into settings in the natural world or bring participants into the laboratory to observe behaviors of interest.
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| dynamic systems theory | A theory that proposes that individuals develop and function within systems and that studies the relationships among individuals and systems and the properties by which these relationships operate.
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| ecological theory | A theory of development that stresses the importance of understanding not only the relationships between organisms and various environmental systems but also the relations among such systems themselves.
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| ecological validity | The degree to which a research study accurately represents events or processes that occur in the natural world.
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| ego | In Freudian theory, the rational, controlling component of the personality, which tries to satisfy needs through appropriate, socially acceptable behaviors.
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| ethological theory | A theory that holds that behavior must be viewed and understood as occurring in a particular context and as having adaptive or survival value.
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| evolutionary psychology | An approach that holds that critical components of psychological functioning reflect evolutionary changes and are critical to the survival of the species.
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| exosystem | The collection of settings, such as a parent's daily work, that impinge on a child's development but in which the child does not play a direct role.
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| experimental group | In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, or the independent variable.
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| field experiment | An experiment in which researchers deliberately create a change in a real-world setting and then measure the outcome of their manipulation.
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| id | In Freudian theory, the person's instinctual drives; the first component of the personality to evolve, the id operates on the basis of the pleasure principle.
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| independent variable | The variable, or factor, that researchers deliberately manipulate in an experiment.
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| Information-processing approaches | Theories of development that focus on the flow of information through the child's cognitive system and particularly on the specific operations the child performs between input and output phases.
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| informed consent | Agreement, based on a clear and full understanding of the purposes and procedures of a research study, to participate in that study.
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| laboratory experiment | A research design that allows investigators to determine cause and effect by controlling variables and treatments and assigning participants randomly to treatments.
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| life-span perspective | A view of development as a process that continues throughout the life cycle, from infancy through adulthood and old age.
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| longitudinal method | A method in which investigators study the same people repeatedly at various times in the participants' lives.
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| macrosystem | The system that surrounds the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem; represents the values, ideologies, and laws of the society or culture.
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| maturation | A genetic or biologically determined process of growth that unfolds over a period of time.
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| mesosystem | The interrelations among the components of the microsystem.
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| microsystem | In Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory, the context in which children live and interact with the people and institutions closest to them, such as parents, peers, and school.
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| national survey | A method of sampling in which a very large, nationally representative group of people are selected for a particular study.
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| natural experiment | An experiment in which researchers measure the results of events that occur naturally in the real world.
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| observer bias | The tendency of observers to be influenced in their judgments by their knowledge of the hypotheses guiding the research.
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| operant conditioning | A type of learning that depends on the consequences of behavior; rewards increase the likelihood that a behavior will recur, whereas punishment decreases that likelihood.
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| Piagetian theory | A theory of cognitive development that sees the child as actively seeking new information and uses two basic principles of biology and biological change: organization and adaptation.
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| psychodynamic theory | In this view of development, which is derived from Freudian theory, development occurs in discrete stages and is determined largely by biologically based drives shaped by encounters with the environment and through the interaction of the personality's three components—the id, ego, and superego.
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| psychosocial theory | Erikson's theory of development that sees children developing through a series of stages largely through accomplishing tasks that involve them in interaction with their social environment.
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| random assignment | The technique by which researchers assign individuals randomly to either an experimental or control group.
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| representativeness | The degree to which a sample actually possesses the characteristics of the larger population it represents.
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| sample | A group of individuals who are representative of a larger population.
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| scientific method | The use of measurable and replicable techniques in framing hypotheses and collecting and analyzing data to test a theory's usefulness.
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| self-report | Information that people provide about themselves, either in a direct interview or in some written form, such as a questionnaire.
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| sequential method | A research method that combines features of both the cross-sectional and the longitudinal methods.
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| Sociocultural theory | A theory of development, proposed by Lev Vygotsky, that sees development as emerging from children's interactions with more skilled people and the institutions and tools provided by their culture.
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| structural-organismic perspectives | Theoretical approaches that describe psychological structures and processes that undergo qualitative or stage-like changes over the course of development.
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| structured observation | A form of observation in which researchers structure a situation so that behaviors they wish to study are more likely to occur.
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| superego | In Freudian theory, the personality component that is the repository of the child's internalization of parental or societal values, morals, and roles.
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