Learning Outcomes

• Contrast Maslow's, McClelland's, and Alderfer's need theories.
• Describe how to motivate employees through job design.
• Describe the practical lessons derived from equity theory.
• Explain Vroom's expectancy theory.
• Describe the practical implications of expectancy theory.
• Identify five practical lessons to be learned from goal-setting research.

Chapter Summary

1. Contrast Maslow's, McClelland's, and Alderfer's need theories. Three well-known need theories of motivation are Maslow's need hierarchy, McClelland's need theory, and Alderfer's ERG theory. Maslow's notion of a stair-step hierarchy of five levels of needs has not stood up well under research. McClelland believes that motivation and performance vary according to the strength of an individual's need for achievement. High achievers prefer moderate risks and situations where they can control their own destiny. Top managers should have a high need for power coupled with a low need for affiliation. Alderfer's existence, relatedness, and growth needs theory does not assume needs are hierarchical, and suggests that frustration of higher-order needs can influence the motivational impact of lower-order ones.

2. Describe how to motivate employees through job design. Job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment, and the job characteristics model are motivational approaches to job design, which are aimed at improving employees' job satisfaction, motivation, and work effectiveness.

3. Describe the practical lessons derived from equity theory. Equity theory has a number of practical implications. First, because people are motivated to resolve perceptions of inequity, managers should not discount employees' feelings and perceptions when trying to motivate workers. Next, managers should pay attention to employees' perceptions of what is fair and equitable. It is the employee's view of reality that counts when trying to motivate someone, according to equity theory. In addition, employees should be given a voice in decisions that affect them. Next, employees should be given the opportunity to appeal decisions that affect their welfare. Finally, employees are more likely to accept and support organizational change when they believe it is implemented fairly and when it produces equitable outcomes.

4. Explain Vroom's expectancy theory. Expectancy theory assumes motivation is determined by one's perceived chances of achieving valued outcomes. Vroom's expectancy model of motivation reveals how effort → performance expectancies and performance → outcome instrumentalities influence the degree of effort expended to achieve desired (positively valent) outcomes.

5. Identify five practical lessons to be learned from goal-setting research. First, difficult goals lead to higher performance than easy or moderate goals, but goals should not be impossible to achieve. Next, specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance for simple rather than complex tasks. In addition, feedback enhances the effect of specific, difficult goals. Further, participative goals, assigned goals, and self-set goals are equally effective. Finally, goal commitment and monetary incentives affect goal-setting outcomes.